Tennis

Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent or between two teams of two players each; these two teams are called singles and doubles category respectively. Each player uses a tennis racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net and into the opponent's court. The point of the game is to hit the ball in a way that the opponent cannot return it as a good play. The point is not scored by the player who attempts and fails to return the ball as a good play, but by the player they are opposing. 

Anyone, from any walk of life, at any age, and even in a wheelchair, as long as they can hold a racket, can play the game of tennis. The earlier forms of tennis originated in France in the last decades of the Middle Ages. It is at this time, in Birmingham, England, that the modern game of tennis took its origin in the last decade of the 19th century as lawn tennis. It had close connections to various field games like croquet and bowls, as well as to the older racket sport now called real tennis.

The rules of modern tennis have changed little since the 1890s. Two exceptions are that until 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times,[6][7] and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s.[8] A recent addition to professional tennis has been the adoption of electronic review technology coupled with a point-challenge system, which allows a player to contest the line call of a point, a system known as Hawk-Eye.[9][10]

There are millions of recreational players who spend time playing tennis, and it is also a very popular spectator sport across the globe. In particular, the four Grand Slam tournaments are considered the highest level of competition for the sport and are very popular. These tournaments are the Australian Open, played on hardcourts; the French Open, played on red clay courts; Wimbledon, played on grass courts; and the US Open, also played on hardcourts. [12] Additionally, tennis was one of the original Olympic sports, and has been consistently competed in the Summer Olympic Games since 1988.

History

Main article: History of tennis

Predecessors

Painting from Cremona; end of the 16th century

Jeu de paume in the 17th century

Historians now believe that the game's ancient origin lay in 12th century northern France, when a ball was struck with the palm of the hand.[13] Louis X of France was a keen player of jeu de paume, which evolved into the real tennis and became notable as the first person to construct indoor tennis courts in the modern style. Louis was dissatisfied anyway to have outside tennis played and so had indoor, enclosed courts made in Paris "about the end of the 13th century".[14] In time this design spread across every royal French palace all over Europe.[14] In June 1316 at Vincennes, Val-de-Marne, and after a particularly exhausting game, Louis drank a great quantity of cooled wine and subsequently died of either pneumonia or pleurisy, although contemporary accounts of his death had suspicion of poisoning.[15] Because of the contemporary accounts of his death, Louis X is history's first tennis player known by name.[15] Another of the game's early enthusiasts was King Charles V of France, who had a court established at the Louvre Palace.[16]

It wasn't until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game started to become known as "tennis", from the French term tenez, meaning "hold!", "receive!" or "take!", an interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent.[17] It was highly popular in England and France, although the game was only played indoors, where the ball could be hit off the wall. This game is still played today, and is known as real tennis. Henry VIII of England was a big fan.

An epitaph in St Michael's Church, Coventry, written c. 1705, read, in part:[19]

Here lyes an old toss'd Tennis Ball:

Was racketted, from spring to fall,

With so much heat and so much hast,

Time's arm for shame grew tyred at last.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries, a time of real tennis's decline, new racket sports emerged in England.

The invention of the first lawn mower in Britain in 1830 is slightly earlier than what was believed to have been the catalyst for the preparation of modern-style grass courts, sporting ovals, playing fields, pitches, greens, etc. This in turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls and others. 

Augurio Perera's house in Edgbaston, Birmingham, England, where he and Harry Gem first played the modern game of lawn tennis

A solicitor, Harry Gem, together with his friend Augurio Perera, played a game that combined elements of racquets and pelota – the Basque ball game – from 1859 to 1865 on Perera's croquet lawn in Birmingham, England.[22][23] In 1872, with two local doctors, they formed the world's first tennis club on Avenue Road, Leamington Spa.[24] This is where "lawn tennis" was used as the name of an activity by a club for the first time.

In Tennis: A Cultural History, Heiner Gillmeister reveals that on 8 December 1874, British army officer Walter Clopton Wingfield wrote to Harry Gem, commenting that he (Wingfield) had been experimenting with his version of lawn tennis "for a year and a half". [25] In December 1873, Wingfield designed and patented a game which he called sphairistikè (Greek: σφαιριστική, meaning "ball-playing"), and which was soon known simply as "sticky" – for the amusement of guests at a garden party on his friend's estate of Nantclwyd Hall, in Llanelidan, Wales. [26] According to R. D. C. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, "Sports historians all agree that [Wingfield] deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis."[20][27] According to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield "popularized this game enormously. He produced a boxed set which included a net, poles, rackets, balls for playing the game – and most importantly you had his rules. He was absolutely terrific at marketing and he sent his game all over the world. He had very good connections with the clergy, the law profession, and the aristocracy and he sent thousands of sets out in the first year or so, in 1874."[28] The world's oldest annual tennis tournament took place at Leamington Lawn Tennis Club in Birmingham in 1874.[29] This was three years before the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club would hold its first championships at Wimbledon, in 1877. The first Championships culminated in a significant debate on how to standardise the rules.[28]

Lawn tennis in the US, 1887

The first diference AU in her history came about in 1874 when Mary Ewing Outerbridge, a young socialite, returned from Bermuda with a sphairistikè set. She became fascinat- ed by the game of tennis after watch- ing British army oficers play.[30] She laid out a tennis court at the Staten Island Cricket Club at Camp Washington, Tompkinsville, Staten Island, New York. The first American National championship was played there in September 1880. An Englishman named O.E. Woodhouse won the singles title, and a silver cup worth $100, by defeating Canadian I. F. Hellmuth. There was also a doubles match which was won by a local pair. There were different rules at each club. The ball in Boston was larger than the one normally used in New York.

On May 21, 1881, the oldest nationwide tennis organization in the world[32] was formed, the United States National Lawn Tennis Association (now the United States Tennis Association) in order to standardize the rules and organize competitions.[33] The US National Men's Singles Championship, now the US Open, was first held in 1881 at the Newport Casino, Newport, Rhode Island.[34] The US National Women's Singles Championships were first held in 1887 in Philadelphia.[35]

Tennis doubles final at 1896 Olympiad

Tennis also established itself in France, with the French Championships dating to 1891, though these continued to be open only to tennis players who were members of French clubs until 1925. Thus Wimbledon, the US Open, the French Open, and the Australian Open dating to 1905 each, became and resulted in the most popular tennis events. Together, these four events are called the Majors or Slams—a term borrowed from bridge rather than baseball.

Lawn tennis in Canada, c. 1900

In 1913, the ILTF – a forerunner of the ITF – established three official tournaments as the major championships of the day. The World Grass Court Championships were awarded to Great Britain. The World Hard Court Championships were awarded to France; the term "hard court" was used for clay courts at the time. Some tournaments were held in Belgium instead. And the World Covered Court Championships for indoor courts were awarded annually; Sweden, France, Great Britain, Denmark, Switzerland and Spain each hosted the tournament.[40] On 16 March 1923, in a meeting in Paris, the title "World Championship" was dropped and a new category of "Official Championship" was established for events in Great Britain, France, the US and Australia [41] – today's Grand Slam events.[40][42] The Financial and administrative success of the four recipient nations to replace the "world championships" with "official championships" was simple in a general sense: each became a major nation of the federation with enhanced voting power, and each now operated a major event.[40]

The comprehensive rules promulgated in 1924 by the ILTF have remained largely stable in the subsequent 80 years, the one major change being the addition of the tiebreak system designed by Jimmy Van Alen.[43] That same year, tennis withdrew from the Olympics after the 1924 Games, but returned 60 years later as a 21andunder demonstration event in 1984. This reinstatement was credited by the efforts of then ITF president Philippe Chatrier, ITF general secretary David Gray and ITF vice president Pablo Llorens, with support from International Olympic Committee president Juan Antonio Samaranch,. The event proved to be such a success that the IOC reinstated tennis as a full medal sport at Seoul in 1988. [44] [45]

The Davis Cup, an annual competition between men's national teams, dates to 1900. The analogue competition for women's national teams, the Fed Cup, was founded as the Federation Cup in 1963 as the 50th birthday of the ITF's. 

In 1926, promoter C. C. Pyle created the first professional tennis tour with a group of American and French tennis players playing exhibition matches to paying audiences.[38][48] One of the most notable early professionals was the American Vinnie Richards and the Frenchwoman Suzanne Lenglen.[38][49] Players turned pro would no longer be allowed to play in the major (amateur) tournaments.[38]

In 1968, commercial pressures and rumors of some amateurs taking money under the table, the abandonment of this distinction, inaugurating the Open Era, where all players could compete in all tournaments, and top players were able to make their living from tennis. With the beginning of the Open Era, the establishment of an international professional tennis circuit and revenues from the sale of television rights, the popularity of tennis has spread worldwide, and the sport has been relieved of its middle-class English-speaking image, although it is recognized that this stereotype still persists.

In 1954 Van Alen founded the International Tennis Hall of Fame, a non-profit museum in Newport, Rhode Island. The building contains a large tennis memorabilia collection as well as a hall of fame honouring prominent members, tennis players and other persons and companies that have contributed significantly to the game.

Equipment

Main article: Tennis technology

Part of the appeal of tennis stems from the simplicity of equipment required for play. Beginners need only a racket and balls.[1]

Racket of Franjo Punčec in a wooden frame – late 1930s

Rackets

Main article: Racket (sports equipment) § Tennis

Wooden racket – c. 1920s

The frame of a tennis racket is of fixed length, with the free unencumbered end of normal size and shape, which does not materially affect any properties. For the first 100 years of the modern game, rackets were made of wood and of standard size, and strings of animal gut. Laminated wood construction yielded more strength in rackets used through most of the 20th century until first metal and then composites of carbon graphite, ceramics, and lighter metals such as titanium were introduced. These stronger materials allowed the playing area to be enlarged along with creating ever greater power. At the same time power and control could be finely tuned with technology allowing a broader range of strings and tensions closer to the feel of natural gut but with far greater durability.

By definition, the rackets must follow these modern day rules of tennis;[55]

The hitting area, consisting of the strings, needs to be flat and usually uniform.

The frame of the hitting area should not exceed 29 inches in length and 12.5 inches in width.

The entire racket must be of the same pattern, size, shape, weight, and weight distribution. There shall be no source of energy built into the rackets.

The rackets should not transmit any information, instruction, or advice to the player during the play.

The rules of rackets have evolved and thus the material and the engineering that produces the force have also changed. For example: The maximum length of the frame had been 32 inches (81 cm) since introduction until it was shortened to 29 inches (74 cm) in 1997.

Many companies manufacture and distribute tennis rackets. Wilson, Head and Babolat are three of the most commonly used brands; however many more companies exist.[57] The same companies sponsor players to use these rackets in the hope that the company name will become better known by the public.

Strings

Main article: Strings (tennis)

There are various types of strings; natural gut and synthetic stings, made from material such as nylon, kevlar, or polyester. [58]

Two different length tennis strings of 12m (left), and 200 m (right)

Natural gut

The first type of strings available were natural gut strings, introduced by Babolat. They were the only type used until synthetic strings were introduced in the 1950s. Natural gut strings are still used frequently by players such as Roger Federer. They are made from cow intestines, and provide increased power, and are easier on the arm than most strings.

Most of them are monofilament or multifilament nylon strings. Monofilament strings are cheap to buy, and used widely by many recreational level players for their all round performance, while multifilament strings are created to mimic natural gut more closely by weaving together fibres, but generally are more expensive than their monofilament counterparts.[58] In terms of manufacturing, polyester strings allow more spin on the ball, than any other string, coupled with firm strings while keeping control of the ball, which is why many players use them, especially higher player ones.[60] Kevlar tennis strings are strong and highly durable, and mostly used by players who frequently break strings, since they maintain tension well, but these strings may be stiff to the arm.[61]

Hybrid strings

A tennis racket is said to be hybrid stringed if two types of strings are used to string the racket. The two types of strings are used for the mains (the vertical strings) and the crosses (the horizontal strings) respectively. This is most commonly done with two different strings that are manufactured by different materials. It can also be done with two flavors of the same string. Notable example of a player using hybrid strings include Roger Federer, who uses natural gut strings in his mains and polyester strings in his crosses.62

Balls

Main article: Tennis ball

A tennis racket and balls.

Tennis balls were originally made of cloth strips stitched together with thread and stuffed with feathers.63 Modern tennis balls are made of hollow vulcanized rubber with a felt coating. The traditional predominant colour of tennis balls was white, but this was changed in the late 20th century to optic yellow for improved visibility. For competition use, balls are determined to have acceptable performance characteristics for them to have regulation play of the game. The International Tennis Federation defines the official diameter as 65.41–68.58 mm (2.575–2.700 in). Balls must weigh between 56.0 and 59.4 g 1.98 and 2.10 oz.[64] Tennis balls were traditionally manufactured in the United States and Europe. The process of making the balls has hardly changed in the last 100 years, though the majority of manufacturing now takes place in the Far East. The move is due to cheaper labor and material costs in the region or locality near where the tournament is being located.[65] Tournaments played under the ITF Rules of Tennis must use balls approved by the International Tennis Federation (ITF) and be named on the official ITF list of approved tennis balls.[66]

Manner of play

The dimensions of a tennis court

For individual terms, see Glossary of tennis terms.

Court

Main article: Tennis court

Place of Tennis

Tennis is played on a flat surface rectangular field. The court is seventy-eight feet (23.77 meters) long, and seventy-seven feet (8.2 meters) for singles matches whereas for doubles it is thirty-six feets (11metres) wide[67]. Clear space surround the court is also needed so that players have overrun balls. The game consists of a net stretched across the full width of the court, parallel with the baselines, dividing it into two equal ends. It is supported at a height of 3 feet 6 inches (1.07 m) by either a cord or metal cable which cannot exceed 0.8 cm (1⁄3 in) in diameter.[66] The net is 3 feet (0.91 m) high at the posts and 3 feet (0.91 m) high in the centre.[67] The net posts are placed 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net, 3 feet (0.91 m) outside the singles court on each side.

The modern tennis court was designed by Major Walter Clopton Wingfield. Wingfield designed in 1873 a court much the same shape as the current one for his stické tennis (sphairistike). The WCs of 1875 made some modifications to the code in 1875 that changed the court's shape to an hour-glass design; this was a largely geometric change, and redesigns that appear similar to Wingfield's early court are common.

Tennis is remarkable compared to most sports because it is played on various surfaces. Typically, the most common surfaces are grass, clay, and hard courts, typically constructed of concrete or asphalt, then topped with acrylic. However, indoor courts may use other materials such as woods or carpet to line surfaces. Artificial turf courts can also be found.

The boundaries to the width of the court are the baseline (farthest behind) and the service line (middle of the court). There is also a short mark in the center of each baseline that is considered either the hash mark or the center mark. The lines that make up the length are the doubles sidelines; they outline a doubles match. The part of the outside lines is the singles sideline, and it forms the boundary in singles play. The part between a doubles sideline and the nearest singles sideline is the doubles alley and is playable in doubles play. You will now learn that the line in the middle of each player's side of the court is the service line because the serve must be delivered into the area between the service line and the net on the receiving side. This is where a player is supposed to stand to serve, but that line is not actually a player's service line. End

The line dividing the service line in two is called the centre line or centre service line. The boxes this centre line creates are called the service boxes; depending on a player's position, they have to hit the ball into one of these when serving. A ball is out only if none of it has hit the area inside the lines, or the line, upon its first bounce. All courts should have a baseline between 1 and 2 inches (25 and 51 mm) in width, although it can be up to 4 inches (100 mm) wide, with the others typically the same width in practice as each other.[70]

A point in tennis consists of one or more rallies.

Main article: Point (tennis)

Two players before a serve.

The players or teams start on opposite sides of the net. A coin is tossed to decide who sends first and on which side. The serving or receiving player is then determined by the chosen player or team on the opposite side. The service is supposed to alternate with each player or team. During a point, the serving player stands behind the baseline between the sideline and the centre mark of the baseline. The receiver is free to stand anywhere on their side of the net. Once the receiver is set, the server needs to serve, but the receiver has to adhere to the server's pace.

For the serve to be legal, the ball must go over the net without touching it and then drop it into the diagonally opposite service box. This is a let or net service, considered void, if the ball clips the net but then lands within the service box, and the server must deliver that particular serve again. There is no predetermined number of let services to be played in a give point, and they are always to be considered null and not as faults. A fault is a serve that is long or wide of the service box or does not clear the net. There is also a "foot fault" when a player's foot touches the base-line or an extension of the centre mark before the ball is hit. If on the second service, after a fault, it again turns out to be a fault, then the server is declared to have double-faulted and the receiver wins the point. However, in case the serve is in, it is a legal service.

A legal service shall commence a rally, following which the players shall take turns hitting the ball over the net. A legal return is noted for a player hitting the ball where it either lands in the server's court before two bounces occur or prior to hitting any fixtures apart from the net. A player or team cannot hit the ball twice in a row. The ball must go over or around the net into the other players' court. A ball that touches the net in a rally is a legal return by hitting into the opposite side of the court. The first player or team missing the legal return loses the point. The server starts serving on the ad or deuce side when the score is an even number of games. The server then moves to the other side of the service line at the start of a new point.[72]

Scoring

Main article: Tennis scoring system

"Break point" redirects here. For the software term, see Breakpoint.

Game, set, match

The scoreboard of a tennis match.

Game

A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving. A player wins a game by being the first to have won at least four points in total and at least two points more than the opponent. The score in the running game is expressed through a method unique to the sport of tennis: scores from zero, to three points are described as "love", "15", "30", and "40" respectively. If they have scored at least three points each, and the player's scores are equal, it is not called out as "40 — 40", but is rather called as "deuce". If at least three points have been made by each player and a player has one more point than his or her opponent, the score of the game is "ad". During informal games, advantage can also be called "ad in" or "van in" when the serving player is ahead, and "ad out" or "van out" when the receiving player is ahead; alternatively, either player may simply call out "my ad" or "your ad".

HOW TO CALL TENNIS SCORES The score of a tennis game during play is always read with the serving player's score first. In tournament play, the chair umpire calls the point count (e.g., "15–love") after each point. At the end of a game the chair umpire also announces the winner of the game and the overall score.[73]

A set is a series of games played with service alternating game by game, and won whenever a certain number of games are awarded to the winning player. Normally, a player wins a set by reaching at minimum six games, whenever the player leads her/his opponent by two games or more. If the leading player wins that game, the player wins the set 7–5. If the trailing player wins the game (tying the set 6–6) a tiebreak is played. A separate written for a tiebreak, with a different set of rules, allows one player to win one more game and thus the set, to give a final set score of 7–6. A game in a tiebreak can be won by scoring at least seven points and at least two points more than the opponent. During tiebreak, the two players serve by 'ABBA' system which has been approved for being fair.[74] When a tiebreak isn't played out, then the set is called an advantage set.

All of the point system in tennis seems to be as fair as it can be because it has undergone many of the experiments and research for verification of the fairness. This advantage set where the set continues without limit until one player leads by a two-game margin is played. A "love set" means that the loser of the set won zero games, colloquially termed a "jam donut" in the US.[75] In tournament play, the chair umpire announces the winner of the set and the overall score. The final score in sets is always read with the winning player's score first, e.g. "6–2, 4–6, 6–0, 7–5".

Match

A match consists of a sequence of sets. The result is decided by the best of three or best of five sets. On the professional circuit, the men play best of five sets on all four Grand Slam tournaments, the Davis Cup, finals in the Olympic Games, and best of three set match system on all other tournaments; the women, on the other hand, play the best of three sets in any tournament. In each format, the first player to win two sets in a best-of-three, or three sets in a best-of-five, wins the match. There is one large exception to this. That finals set has no tiebreak at the Olympic Games or Fed Cup singles matches. In that case, sets are played ad infinitum to break the tie until one player leads by two games. This can sometimes make for some really long matches.

The match is traditionally ended in tournament play with the familiar refrain "Game, set, match" followed by the winning person's or team's name.

Situations for special point terms

Game point

A game point is a tennis term used whenever the player that is leading needs only one more point to win that game. The terminology extends to sets (set point), matches (match point), and even championships (championship point). For example, if a player serving to his opponent has a score of 40–love, that player has a triple game point (triple set point, etc.) because the player has three straight chances to push through and win the game. Game point are not part of official scoring and are not announced by the chair umpire in tournament play.

Break point

A break point occurs if the receiver, not the server, has an opportunity to win the game with the next point. Break points are of particular importance because serving is generally considered advantageous, with servers being expected to win games in which they are serving. A receiver having one (score of 30–40 or advantage), two (score of 15–40) or three (score of love–40) successive opportunities to win a game has break point, double break point or triple break point, respectively. If the receiver does, in fact, win their break point the game is awarded to the receiver and the receiver is said to have converted their break point. If the receiver cannot win their break point it is a failure to convert. In the course of winning break points, and hence the game, it is also said that serve is broken because the receiver has upset, or broken the natural advantage of the server. If, in the subsequent game, the previous server wins a break point, it is a breaking back. Except where tiebreaks apply, at least one break of serve is required to win a set (otherwise a two-game lead would never occur).

Rule variations

See also: Types of tennis match

No ad

From 'No advantage'. Scoring method created by Jimmy Van Alen. The first player or doubles team to win four points wins the game, regardless of whether the player or team is ahead by two points. When the game score is tied at 3-3, the receiver may choose which side of the court the service is to be delivered on the 7th and game-deciding point. Utilized by World Team Tennis professional competition, ATP tours, WTA tours, ITF Pro Doubles and ITF Junior Doubles.[77][78]

Pro set

Variation: Instead of multiple sets, players may play one pro set. A pro set is first to 8 (or 10) games by a margin of two games, instead of first to 6 games. A 12-point tiebreak is usually played when the score is 8–8 (or 10–10). These are often played with no-ad scoring.

Match tiebreak

This is sometimes played instead of a third set. A match tiebreak, a super tiebreak to some, is just like a regular tiebreak, but the winner shall acquire ten points rather than the ordinary seven points. Match tiebreaks are used in the Hopman Cup, Grand Slams (excluding Wimbledon) and the Olympic Games for mixed doubles; on the ATP (since 2006), WTA (since 2007) and ITF (excluding four Grand Slam tournaments and the Davis Cup) tours for doubles and as a player's choice in USTA league play.

Fast4 has a shortened format offering a "fast" option: four points, four games, and four rules. There are no advantage scores, lets are played, and there are tie-breakers at three all; it is first to five with a "sudden death" point at four all. Set is first to four games. In the event of a no advantage deuce, the decision of which side on service goes to the receiver. If a let serve is hit, the rally shall be replayed as a dead ball and the opposing team in doubles shall have the option of accepting the serve. Upon changing sides, players shall not take a break and shall be on the court and ready to play within sixty seconds. Between sets, players are allowed to take a seat, and must be prepared to play within ninety seconds.

Another, but more casual, format in tennis is termed Canadian doubles. This consists of three players, one person playing against a doubles team. The single player gets to use the alleys normally considered the triple privilege of the doubles team. Conversely, the doubles team does not use the alleys when putting away shots at the net. The scoring is the same as a regular game. This format is not recognized by any governing body.

"Australian doubles" is a variation of this style of play, another informal and unsanctioned form of tennis, and is played with similar rules, only with two players. Players constantly switch end of the court after each game and during each point. On each point, one player from each team is used to play singles and the other is used to play doubles. Scoring styles vary, but one popular method to score is to assign a value of 2 points to each game, with the server taking both points if he or she holds serve and the doubles team each taking one if they break serve.

The wheelchair tennis is a sports event enjoyed by the people who need wheelchairs and by able-bodied players. One of the allowances is that it permits an extra bounce. This allows for mixed wheelchair and able-bodied species. One can partner with either one wheelchair player and one an able–body player as in the case of doubles (one-up, one-down), or one can play against an able-bodied. The extra bounce is allowed for the wheelchair users in this case.

Match play

Convention dictates that the two players shake hands at the end of a game.

Continuity

A tennis game has to be continuous. As stamina is a relevant factor, it doesn't allow weird holdups. Most of the time, service needs to end within 20 seconds after the last point, rising to 90 seconds when the sides change after every odd-numbered game, with a 2-minute break between sets—all of which apart from this are allowed only at the behest of conditions not under the players' control, such as rain, demanding retrieval of an errant ball, or damage to footwear or racket. If a player is found to be stalling the game several times, the chair umpire can give first a warning to the player; he can then give subsequent penalties of "point", "game", and finally default of the match to the player who is consistently making a mistake of taking longer than the allowed time. \

If a game is stopped due to rain, darkness or other outside causes, play is resumed at some later point, with the same score as at the stoppage, and the player who served a previous game is the receiver.

Ball changes

In serious play at ATP and WTA tournaments, balls wear out quickly. They are changed after each nine games, with the first of those immediately following the first seven, because the set of balls used during the match is also used for the pre-match warm-up. In ITF tournaments, such as Fed Cup, balls are changed after each eleven games, with the first of those immediately following the first nine. An exception to this is in the case where a ball change may not occur at the start of a tiebreaker, in which case the ball change is delayed until the start of the second game of the next set.[66] To give an advantage to the receiver, the server will often announce the serving hand before the first service of the game in which new balls take, as a reminder to the receiver that they are using new balls. Continuity of the condition of the balls is considered part of the game, so if play must be resumed after a lengthy break for some reason, and the ball must be rewarmed up, in case of rain for example, then a different set is warmed, with use of the balls for the game resuming only when play eventually resumes.

A recent rule change is to allow on-court coaching to take place on a limited basis during a match.[83][84][85][86] This has been introduced in women's tennis for WTA Tour events in 2009 and allows the player to request her coach once per set.[87]

 Stance

 Stance is the way a player prepares themselves in order to best be able to return a shot. Basically, it allows them to quickly change into position to play a stroke. In contemporary tennis, there are basically four stances: open stance, semi-open, closed, and neutral stance. All these four stances require the player to squat in one way or another. Besides being a better striking pose, this is how they isometrically prime their muscles in preparation to play the stroke more dynamically. Stance used strongly depends on shot selection. A player often quickly changes his/her stance as depending on the circumstances and shot they intend to play. Any particular stance can also vary significantly based on the playing of the shot itself with dynamic movements and shifts of body weight taking place.[88][89]

Open stance

Most common stance used End. The player's feet are squared up with the net, they can face directly at the net or angled in the net's direction. This allows a great degree of torso rotation to be created which can add a lot of extra power onto the shot. The motion is commonly described as a coiling and uncoiling of a spring. i.e. the torso is rotated as a means of preloading the muscular system in readiness for playing the stroke: this is the coiling phase. When the stroke is played the torso rotates to face forwards again, called uncoiling, and adds significant power to the stroke. A disadvantage of this stance is that it does not always allow 'for proper weight transfer and maintenance of balance'[88] when making powerful strokes. It is generally used for forehand strokes; however, effective double-handed backhands can also be hit from it.

Semi-open stance

This stance is a very open one and somewhere between an open and a closed stance. The feet are aligned diagonally towards the net. It allows a lot of shoulder rotation, and the torso can be coiled before being uncoiled into the shot in order to increase the power of the shot. It is often used in modern tennis especially by 'top professional players on the forehand'.[90] It is an upright one-handed grip stance and one that can also be adopted for two-handed backhands.

Closed stance

The closed stance is the least commonly used of the three main stances. One foot is placed near the net compared to the other foot; it is farther from the net. Relative diagonal relationship exists between the feet. It allows a good amount of torque in the torso to assist in channeling the power into the shot. It is mostly used to play backhand shots and forehand shots are rarely played from it. A stroke from this stance may involve the rear foot going completely off the ground with the body weight being transferred completely into the front foot.[88] [89]

Neutral stance

This is sometimes also known as a square stance. One foot is placed close to the net and ahead of the other which is behind and in line with it. Both feet are aligned at a 90 degree angle to the net. The neutral stance is often taught early because 'It allows beginners to learn about shifting weight and rotation of the body.'[89] Forehands and backhands may be made from it.[91]

Shots

Main article: Tennis shots

Competent tennis players make use of eight basic shots: the serve, forehand, backhand, volley, half-volley, overhead smash, drop shot, and lob.

Grip

Main article: Grip (Tennis)

A grip is a way of holding the racket in order to hit shots during a match. The grip affects the angle of the racket face when it hits the ball and influences the pace, spin, and placement of the shot. Players use different grips during play, including the Continental (The "Handshake Grip"), Eastern (often called semi-eastern, full eastern, it is different from the "Eastern grip" used in badminton, which is closer to a Western grip), and Western (usually for forehand grips). Most players are comfortable enough with one grip that they don't use another for a different shot. For a right-handed player, the forehand will often use a semi-western or Western grip, while the backhand will use an Eastern grip for most players but a semi-western grip for others. Many players use a mixture of forehand and backhand.

A serve, more formally called a "service," is a shot to start a point. The serve may be hit under- or overhand but shall be struck after the ball has dropped into the player's hand. The serve may be hit under- or overhand although underhand serving remains a rarity. If the ball hits the net on the first serve and bounces over into the correct diagonal box then it is called a "let" and the server gets two more extra serves to get it in. There can also be a let if the server serves the ball and the receiver isn't prepared. [66] If the server misses his or her first serve and gets a let on the second serve, then they get one more try to get the serve in the box.

Within advanced players, the traditional overhand serve is one of the sought-after skills in order to apply maximum power and placement. Serve: The server can use a lot of variety in serving, such as the flat serve, topspin serve, slice serve, and kick (American twist) serve. Reverse Type of Spin Serve The direction of spin in this serve is in a way that it makes the ball spin opposite the way the server would naturally spin it, depending on whether the person is right- or left-handed. If the ball is spinning counterclockwise, from the hitter's point of view, the ball will curve to the right; if dazzling clockwise, the ball curves left.  Some servers are content to merely initiate the point with the serve. Advanced players take the opportunity to try to hit a winning shot when serving, and this is called a "service winner". A player will typically use a groundstroke to set up a winning volley or smash.

Juan Martín del Potro during a forehand stroke.

In tennis, a right-handled player, the forehand is a the stroke that begins on the right side of the body, continues across the body as contact is made with the ball, and ends on the left side of the body. There have been many changes in grips over the decades. The most important ones are the continental, the eastern, the semi-western, and the western. For a number of years, the small, frail 1920s player Bill Johnston was considered by many to have had the best forehand of all time, a stroke that he hit shoulder-high using a western grip. Few top players used a western grip after the 1920s, but with shot-making techniques and equipment changed radically at the end of the 20th century, the western forehand made a strong comeback and is widely used by many modern players. Two-handed forehands remain the weapon of choice for a number of fine players. In the 1940s and 50s, the Ecuadorian/American player Pancho Segura used a two-handed forehand to achieve a devastating effect against larger, more powerful players. Players such as Monica Seles or France's Fabrice Santoro and Marion Bartoli are also notable players known for their two-handed forehands.[95]

 Backhand

Main article: Backhand

Novak Djokovic in a two-handed backhand motion.

Backhand: A stroke made on the left side of the body of the right-handed player and continuing across the body while the ball is contacted, ending on the right side of the body. A backhand can be executed with one hand or two; generally thought of as the harder shot of the two. For most of the 20th century, the backhand was performed with one hand. The first prominent twohander was the 1930s Australians Vivian McGrath and John Bromwich, but they were the exception. The first truly great two-hander was Björn Borg, who used an eastern grip when he swung with one hand. The two-hander can be either offensive or defensive; in either. The two-handed grip gained popularity in the 1970s. It was instrumental for players such as Björn Borg, Chris Evert, Jimmy Connors, and later, Mats Wilander and Marat Safin. It is in wide usage by most of the world's top players, including Novak Djokovic, Rafael Nadal, and Serena Williams.

It gives the player two hands on the racket for better control, though a slice shot can be returned with that grip, sending the ball low and looping. Reach is also limited with the two-handed shot. The player long considered to have had the best backhand of all time, Don Budge, had a powerful one-handed stroke in the 1930s and 1940s that imparted topspin onto the ball. Ken Rosewall, another one-handed backhand player, implemented a very accurate slice backhand throughout the 1950s and 1960s. A small number of players, mainly Monica Seles, use two hands on both the backhand and forehand sides.

Other shots

A volley is a shot returned to the opponent in mid-air before the ball bounces—ungenerally performed near the net—and is usually made with the hand's punching motion to hit the ball into an open area of the opponent's court. The half volley is made by hitting the ball on the rise just after it has bounced, also generally in the vicinity of the net, and played with the racket close to the ground. The swinging volley is hit out of the air as the player approaches the net. It is an offensive shot used to take preparation time away from the opponent by returning the ball into the opponent's court much faster than a standard volley.

It's a fact that the lob could be used from the baseline for both offensive and defensive purposes: to make the ball go high and deep inside the opponent's court and to force the opponent into a weak defensive position or to hit the ball over the opponent's head so that the challenger can hardly touch the ball. However, if the lob is not hit deep enough into the opponent's court, an opponent near the net will then hit an overhead smash, a hard, serve-like shot, to try to end the point.

An attempted lob return over the backhand side of a player is a very difficult shot in tennis. Most players, when the contact point is higher than the reach of a two-handed backhand—under the ball or on the side—will attempt a very high slice. Fewer still will attempt a sky-hook or smash. Some will execute a high, floating topspin backhand, while airborne themselves. That is, any of the alternatives requires balance and timing to be successfully executed—not to mention less of a margin of error than the lower contact point backhands. Because this shot is a break in the regular pattern of play.

For example, if the opponent is positioned deep inside the court, the player might suddenly use an unexpected drop shot by tapping the ball softly over the net, such that the opponent cannot rush forward to get the ball back. Advanced players will recognize this effect of backspin and often rush to the net in order to finish the point once they have dropped shot. The backspin will pull the opponent out of their normal movement pattern, forcing them to run hard just to get to the ball in time. This should open up the court into which one can easily make the winning volley.

Tournaments

See also: List of tennis tournaments

Tournaments are typically classified by are, gender, number of players, and other factors. Common tournament formats are sections for the men's or the women's singles also doubles where there are two players at each side of the net. The game could be held for different age groups with an upper age limit for the youth, and low age limit for the senior personnel. The examples\application include the Orange Bowl and Les Petits As tournament for juniors. Additionally, there's a category for wheelchair tennis and deaf tennis allowing players with disabilities to participate. During the four Grand Slam tournaments, the singles draws for each gender are limited to 128 players.

Seeds are usually reserved for the major tournaments, but in practice, some systems pair skilled players against less-skilled ones. A player is given a rating according to how well they do in sanctioned play, which is periodically adjusted to maintain competitive matches. An example can be found on the United States Tennis Association's National Tennis Rating Program (NTRP). Another example would be the Artengo Rating, part of the French Decathlon's private brand, which rates all players between 1 and 100, each rating corresponding to a certain level. The Tennis Australia also uses the Universal Tennis Rating (UTR), which rates them between 1.0 and 7.0 in 1/2 point increments. This would make average club players between 3.0–4.5 under the system, while world-class players would be 7.0 on the scale.

Grand Slam tournaments

A tennis match at Centre Court of Wimbledon in 2007.

The four Grand Slam tournaments are considered the most prestigious tennis tournaments of the year. They are held annually and comprise, in the following chronological order: the Australian Open, the French Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open. Apart from the Olympic Games, Davis Cup and Hopman Cup, they are the only tournaments administered by the International Tennis Federation (ITF). The administration for the conduct of each eve is deal regularized with by national associations of ITF; Tennis Australia ("Australian Open"), the Fédération Française de Tennis ("French Open"), the Lawn Tennis Association ("Wimbledon") and the United States Tennis Association ("US Open").

Besides the historical significance of these events, they also have prize monies larger than that of any other tour event, with the winner earning double the number of ranking points accorded to the champion of the next echelon of tournaments, the ATP Masters 1000 Series for men and the Premier events for women. Another distinguishing feature is the number of players in the singles draw, which totals 128 - more than any other professional tennis tournament. This draw has 32 seeded players, additional other players in the world's top 100, qualifiers and players given invitations through wild cards. Grand Slam tournaments for men have matches that require a best of five set whereas the female players play best of three. The Grand Slam tournaments are the small number of tournaments events that last two weeks that is the Indian Wells Masters and the Miami Masters.

At present, the mixed doubles contests are only at the Grand Slam tournaments. Grand Slam tournaments happen at the same time with the tournaments of wheelchair tennis besides junior tennis competitions. These tournaments also have their peculiarities. At Wimbledon, for instance, the players are supposed to have predominantly white on. Andre Agassi skipped Wimbledon from 1988 through 1990 stating that it did not "register very much" with him. His criticisms included the event being stuck in the past, too focused on tradition, the event's tradition required beginner's to bow to the royal box as well as wearing ties and an "almost entirely white" dress code.[102]

Wimbledon to this day has its own particular methods for disseminating tickets, and this means devotees who love to watch tennis must often follow complex procedures.

Major championships: Grand Slam tournaments

Grand Slam First held Held Location Surface Date Prize money

Australian Open 1905 95 times Melbourne

Masters Series

The ATP Masters 1000 is the second topmost series of nine tennis tournaments. All its events, singles in each, are awarded 1000 annually. When Jordan Hamilton became executive director of ATP in 1990, the ATP board named the top nine tournaments, other than Grand Slam events, the "Super 9". In 2000 the it was renamed as Tennis Masters Series, and in 2004 it became the ATP Masters Series. Every November to conclude the tennis year, the top eight players in the world compete in the ATP Finals, a tournament rotating venue. It is currently held in Turin.

In August 2007 the ATP announced major changes to the tour that were introduced one year later in 2009. The Masters Series was renamed to the "ATP Masters 1000", numbers whose addition recalled the number of ranking points earned by the winner of each tournament. In a break from earlier proposals, the series has not been cut from nine tournaments to eight and the Monte-Carlo Masters has not been removed from the list, although it will not have a player commitment, as the other events do. The Hamburg Masters has been demoted to 500 points event. The Madrid Masters moved to May and onto clay courts, and a new tournament in Shanghai takes Madrid's former October slot, albeit played indoors. Since 2011 six of the "1000" level tournaments are combined ATP and WTA events.